Methodological development on the topic: Modern theory and methodology of football training. Theory and methodology of sports training

Within the framework of which any maximum task is solved. In the practice of sports, the macrocycle serves to prepare for the next major competition (for example, annual macrocycles or four-year macrocycles associated with preparation for the Olympic Games). In the practice of fitness training in general (and, for example, amateur bodybuilding, as its component, in particular), the duration of the macrocycle, as a rule, depends on the goal set by the client and the expected period of its achievement. The macrocycle, in turn, is divided into mesocycles to solve various specific problems. The duration of mesocycles is determined by the duration of adaptation processes occurring in functional systems corresponding to the loads applied during this period, which, in turn, depends on the reactivity of these systems and the dynamics of the training means used.

The choice of goals to be addressed in training within individual mesocycles, and, as a consequence, the methods and means used for this, depend on specific sports. The coach is required to have sufficiently deep knowledge in the field of sports physiology in order to accurately determine the totality of various adaptation processes, the implementation of which will lead to an overall increase in performance in a given sport.

When planning a macrocycle, one should take into account the different duration of adaptation processes that ensure the development of certain qualities, and the different duration of maintaining sports form in each mesocycle.

The mesocycle, in turn, is divided into microcycles, periods in which training loads of varying volume and intensity are applied. This is connected with this. As we know, to trigger the adaptation mechanism, the stressful nature of the training influence applied to the body is necessary. However, the desire to ensure such a stressful nature of the load at each training session with a high degree of probability can lead to inhibition or disruption of the adaptation mechanism as a result of overtraining - a condition largely associated with overstrain of cortical processes and disruption of the regulatory functions of the central nervous system. Alternating microcycles with loads that differ in volume and intensity will make it possible to most effectively implement the task set for solution within a specific mesocycle. More detailed recommendations for creating cycles when developing training programs will be given below.

Fitness training system

Fitness training means are a variety of physical exercises that directly or indirectly influence the solution of the tasks that a fitness trainer faces as part of his work.

Physical exercises used in fitness training are mainly borrowed from sports practice. (The exception is exercises for developing flexibility, partially borrowed from such a system of human health improvement and improvement as yoga). As a result, they are divided according to the classification used in the sport.

Exercises can be divided into:

According to the primary mechanism of energy supply (“aerobic” and “anaerobic”
workout);

Focused on the development of certain qualities and functions (strength
training, endurance training, flexibility training);

By the nature of execution (continuous, interval).

In this practical guide, we will use the division of exercises both according to their focus on the development of certain physical qualities, and according to the equipment used.

Part 1. Fitness training theory

Characteristics of training load

Training loads are determined by the following indicators:

a) load intensity;

b) load volume;

c) the nature of the exercises.

Load intensity

Intensity is a characteristic that reflects both the magnitude of the external load (the so-called external intensity), and the degree of human effort in overcoming it (“internal” intensity). “External” intensity is closely related to the power developed during exercise. The more power an athlete develops, the greater the intensity of his workout.

Power is the amount of work performed per unit of time. Power (R) can be defined as work ( A) divided by the amount of time (Δt), or as a product of force (F) and speed (v) (P=F·v).

Job- this is a quantity that characterizes how much an object can be displaced in
a certain direction when force is applied. (6) Work is equal to the product of force times
distance (A= F· d).________________________________________________________________

“Internal” intensity is associated with the magnitude of shifts in the functional state of various systems and organs caused by this load. It should be noted that in his practice, a fitness trainer, when determining the level of “internal” intensity, will have to rely on the client’s subjective sensations, which largely depend on his psychophysical abilities. For example, when explaining the impossibility of continuing to perform the last repetition by the onset of a state of “failure,” two different athletes may attach completely different meanings to this concept, reflecting significantly different magnitudes of their efforts when performing this repetition.

Let's look at examples of the manifestation of different types of intensity.

Suppose an athlete performs in one training session bench press with a barbell weighing 100 kg for 6 repetitions, and on the other with a weight of 90 kg for 12 repetitions. The pace, speed and other kinematic indicators are the same. However, the athlete was able to perform 6 repetitions with a weight of 100 kg quite easily, while 12 repetitions with a weight of 90 kg were performed “to failure”, using one “forced” repetition. The “external” intensity of the load will be greater in the first workout, and the “internal” intensity in the second. However, in most cases, these characteristics coincide, which allows us to simply use the term “intensity” in relation to individual training sessions or periods of the training process.

Load volume- job-related characteristic (A), performed by a person to overcome external resistance or to counteract it, as well as with energy (E), spent by him in demonstrating his strength abilities for this work. It is believed that the work performed by the system is equal to the change in energy in the system, i.e., doing work requires energy expenditure. The relationship between work and energy can be written as:

A= ΔE

Doing 15 reps with a 80kg barbell will be a higher volume load than doing 6 reps of 120kg squats, but less intense. An example of the manifestation of the maximum volume load would be marathon competitions, and manifestations of the maximum intense load would be weightlifting competitions.

Municipal autonomous institution

additional education specialized

children's and youth football sports school "Victoria"

village Sovkhoznogo, municipal formation Slavyansky district.

Methodological development

Modern theory and methodology of football training

Approved at the meeting

Teachers' Council of the Sports School "Victoria"

protocol No. 10

Compiled by: football coach and teacher

Mishchenko Ivan Borisovich

village Sovkhozny, Slavyansky district

2016

1.Introduction page 3

2. Justification of the problem of improving the physical fitness of young athletes p.4

2.1Physical training of football players as the basis for achieving sports results p.4

3.Sports and technical training of young football players p.10

4. Taking into account the age characteristics of athletes when constructing the educational and training process p. 16

5. Determination of the level of physical and technical preparedness of football players p. 20

6. Conclusion p.22

7. Literature p.23

1. Introduction

The relevance of this topic lies in the fact that modern research in the field of children’s and youth sportsare characterized by the concentration of scientists' attention on the problems of improving the content of the main sections of program and methodological documents.Therefore, improving the training process management system based on the objectification of knowledge about the structure of sports activity and the preparedness of athletes, taking into account the general patterns of development of sportsmanship in a chosen sport, is one of the promising areas for improving the entire system of sports training.

Sports training in football is built as a year-round process that has certain time intervals during which certain main tasks of the educational and training process are solved. As a rule, the structure of sports training has large stages, which, in turn, for ease of management of the educational and training process, are divided into smaller structural components (stages, periods, cycles), at which the tasks of developing the sportsmanship of a football player and developing physical skills are directly solved. qualities and abilities, preparation and participation in competitions.

The achievement of sports results of young football players will significantly depend on the effectiveness of constructing the educational and training process at the initial stage of sports training.

In connection with the above, it seems necessary to scientifically search and develop ways to improve the educational and training process of young football players, which served me in choosing the topic of work: “Theoretical and methodological foundations of sports training of young football players at the stage of initial training.”

Purpose of the study:study the theoretical principles of the educational and training process of young football players.

Object of study:educational and training process of young football players.

Subject of study:technical and physical preparedness of young football players.

During my research, the following questions were raised: tasks:

1. Study and analyze scientific and methodological literature on this issue.
2. To identify methodological features of conducting classes with young football players.
3. To present diagnostic tools for assessing the technical and physical readiness of young football players.

To solve research problems, various methods:

Study and analysis of literary sources;

Analysis and generalization of best practices and pedagogical work in the Sports School for Youth and Youth,

Observations, conversations with colleagues, children, parents.

2. Substantiation of the problem of improving the physical fitness of young athletes

2.1 Physical training of football players as the basis for achieving sports results

Physical training is a pedagogical process aimed at nurturing physical qualities and developing functional capabilities that create favorable conditions for improving all aspects of training. Physical training is the most important section in the educational and training process. Physical training is the process of developing physical abilities that are inextricably linked with increasing the overall level of functional capabilities of the body and versatile physical development. Physical training is the foundation for mastering this sport. It promotes rapid mastery of skills and abilities and their strong consolidation.

Physical training is divided intogeneral and special.General physical training includes the development of all physical qualities of students. When conducting general physical training classes with football players, the following methodological requirements must be observed: the selection of exercises should be carried out taking into account the coverage of all muscle groups, the volume of load in each lesson and series should be increased gradually, taking into account the preparedness of the students.

General developmental exercises and exercises from various sports are used as the main means, which have a general effect on the body of the student. At the same time, the development and strengthening of the muscular-ligamentous apparatus, improvement of the functions of internal organs and systems, improved coordination of movements and a general increase in the level of development of motor qualities are achieved. Most of the exercises suitable for the purpose of increasing general physical fitness have a comprehensive effect on the body, but at the same time, each of them is primarily aimed at developing one or another quality.

Special physical training involves the development of physical qualities necessary for a particular sport. Special physical training is characterized by the level of development of physical abilities, capabilities of organs and functional systems that directly determine achievements in the chosen sport. The main means of special physical training are competitive exercises and special exercises. With the help of special exercises, mainly aimed at developing certain physical qualities, it is possible to simultaneously improve the performance of individual technical techniques. For this purpose, special exercises are usually used, similar in the nature of execution and structure to one or another technical technique or its individual elements. Special physical training is based on the general, fairly high physical fitness of those involved and involves the development of such qualities special for a football player as strength, speed, endurance, dexterity, flexibility.

The main role in the general and special physical fitness of a football player is played by strength, speed, endurance, agility, and flexibility. It is these physical qualities that reflect the level of motor capabilities of a football player.

In football, qualities such as speed, agility, flexibility are manifested in close interconnection. Of course, you can and should use exercises in training that contribute to the development of any particular quality. However, we must not forget that the specifics of the game of football are such that it is often necessary to demonstrate these qualities in combination.

Nurturing strength. Modern football places high demands on the player’s strength abilities, which largely determine the speed of performing various techniques, the speed of movement and are of great importance for the manifestation of dexterity and endurance. In gaming activities, this physical quality is manifested in combination with the speed of movement within the framework of a certain motor skill that corresponds to the correct technique of playing football.

Based on the nature and conditions of manifestation of muscle strength, it is customary to distinguish between actual strength abilities (in static modes and slow movements). Speed-strength abilities play a leading role in football.

According to scientific research, in football more than 70% of movements are of a speed-strength nature. However, when moving in a defensive stance, tackling the ball and other tough, so to speak, actions, significant static efforts are required. Therefore, the player’s strength training must be versatile and develop muscle strength in various modes.

To develop explosive strength in training practice, the following exercises in dynamic speed modes are increasingly being used: pushes, kicking heavy medicine balls at a distance; pulling, displacing or pushing partners out of the space designated on the court; snatching balls from opponents' hands.

To develop dynamic strength, small weights are used (20% of the weight lifted), which do not lead to a significant disruption of the structure of movements characteristic of football. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account that excessive enthusiasm for strength exercises negatively affects coordination abilities, and that strength training only to a certain level and with a certain direction affects the development of speed. In addition, strength exercises have a positive effect on the development of this quality when they are used in the same movement in which you need to show the highest speed.

When individually planning strength training, it should be taken into account that the nature of motor activity in players of different roles also determines the level of development of strength abilities. When moving, for example, for defenders, the strength of the muscles of the plantar flexors of the foot is of greatest importance, for attackers - the relative strength of the extensor muscles, but for centers - explosive dynamic force. This is the basis for a differentiated approach to improving the strength abilities of basketball players of different playing roles. In skilled football players, strength should be developed through strength training with an emphasis on speed and agility. Strength exercises should be combined with exercises aimed at increasing joint mobility and relaxation. Basic methods of developing and improving strength: repeated lifting of an unlimited weight “to failure.”

Developing speed (speed abilities) as a physical quality, understands the ability of a football player to perform movements in a minimum period of time. It is customary to highlightelementary and complex forms of manifestation of speed. Elementary forms include: time of simple and complex reaction, time of single movement and frequency of movements.

To develop complex reactions, you can use exercises in which you need to react to a moving object (ball, partner) that appears suddenly, changes the speed of movement, and various changes in game situations.

A high frequency of movements is mastered by performing short-term exercises (10-20 s) at a maximum pace in such a way that by the end of the exercise, with the onset of fatigue, the speed does not decrease.

The speed of initial acceleration and distance speed are the foundation of speed in football, since against their background other aspects of this physical quality appear, for example, the speed of passes, dribbles and dribbles, and the execution of elements of attack. You can achieve an increase in movement speed not only by influencing the player’s speed abilities, but also by developing strength abilities and improving movement techniques.

The main means of developing speed in football are speed exercises performed at maximum or near maximum speed. Here are a number of methodological techniques that contribute to the development of this quality:

• performing exercises in easier conditions (running on an inclined track, using the traction force of suspensions);
• alternating exercises in difficult and normal conditions, varying weights;
• running after the leader (partner), running from acceleration;
• introduction of a time limit for performing the exercise, spatial conditions for its implementation.

Building Enduranceone of the most important qualities of young football players. Modern football is characterized by very high competitive and training loads, pace of play, performing technical techniques at high speed with enemy resistance, and the use of active defense and attack systems. A long competitive period, high intensity of tournaments and individual matches require a high level of endurance development, i.e. the ability to withstand fatigue resulting from competitive stress. That is why it is necessary to develop the endurance of football players.

However, long, uniform work is monotonous and football players are not always willing to do it. The preferred form of training is fartlek - running at different speeds in a large volume in the forest or on rough terrain. Improving general endurance is carried out using uniform, continuous, repeated and variable methods.

A peculiarity of the manifestation of the functional abilities of football players in the game is the alternation of aerobic and anaerobic processes. At the moment of high physical activity, anaerobic processes are activated and oxygen debt accumulates. The power of aerobic processes determines the speed of restoration and elimination of oxygen debt. Therefore, a high level of general endurance serves as a solid basis for special endurance. At the stages of special training and pre-competition, the ratio of means and methods for developing endurance changes - the share of special ones increases.

When including exercises to develop endurance in training, it is necessary to ensure that training and competitive influences correspond to the functional capabilities and level of preparedness of the player. Intensification of loads is possible only with the widespread use of means that stimulate recovery processes in the athlete’s body.

This is, first of all,rational structure of classes. Here are of great importance:

• the right combination of exercise and rest;
• variability of training means and methods;
• conducting active recreation on the day following the day of classes with maximum load;
• performing exercises in pauses between main exercises for active rest and relaxation;
• passive rest in a state of complete relaxation;
• use of music and rhythm leader; conducting training in a variety of conditions (at the stadium, in the forest, in the park, on the river bank, etc.);
• ensuring good living conditions and eliminating negative factors;
• provision of rational nutrition and vitamin supplementation, massage, hydrotherapy, physiotherapy.

Under the education of dexterityIt is generally accepted to understand the ability to master complexly coordinated movements, as well as quickly and accurately solve complex motor tasks and rearrange motor activity in accordance with the changing environment.

However, taking into account the specifics of the manifestation of dexterity in football, it is advisable to select exercises that, in their content and nature, would be close to the specifics of the game. Thus, to develop dexterity in movement, specialized exercises and games with combinations characteristic of football are widely used: reaction speed - starting acceleration - distance speed - simultaneous performance of techniques with the ball and solving tactical problems. When performing exercises, various methodological techniques are widely used - changing the starting conditions, spatial boundaries, methods of performing exercises, complicating them with additional movements, enemy resistance, introducing a surprise factor, which stimulates the manifestation of coordination of movements.

To develop dexterity in rapidly changing game situations, exercises such as overcoming an obstacle course are recommended, performed at a fast pace one after another, for example: an acrobatic jump - somersault over an obstacle, after a short run-up, jump “out the window”, then, starting from a spring bridge, jump onto rope, climb along it to a certain mark and jump off to an accurate landing; end the exercise with a dash to the finish line; - start lying on your back with a medicine ball in your hands - run 4-5 m, jump over the barrier, then climb over the gymnastic beam, perform a 6-8 m jerk and immediately jump onto the gymnastic wall, climb it, touch the wall with your hand; The exercise ends with a jump and a final dash to the finish line.

Such exercises are carried out in the form of competitions between two teams, recording the time spent by the teams to overcome obstacles. It must be taken into account that they require not only physical effort, but also significant nervous tension. Therefore, it is not advisable to include many such exercises in one lesson; they should be introduced into the training session at the beginning of the main part.

The main methods of using these exercises are variable, game and competitive.

The concept of "flexibility"reflects the morphofunctional properties of the musculoskeletal system, which determine the degree of mobility of its parts. A football player’s ability to perform movements with a large amplitude to some extent determines the ease and freedom of performing technical techniques, their speed and accuracy. The measure of the degree of development of flexibility is the maximum range of motion. The range of movements depends on mobility in the joints, elasticity of muscles, ligaments and tendons, muscle strength, as well as the state of the central nervous system.

The main task of developing a football player's flexibility is to improve this quality in relation to the demands of football. First of all, attention should be paid to increasing mobility in the ankle and knee joints.

High-class football players, as a rule, master the art of relaxation, perform techniques easily and freely, including in active work only the muscles necessary to ensure rational movements, optimally relaxing the rest.

To master the ability to relax, exercises are used that use the weight of individual parts of the body that are in a higher position relative to the site, and more complex exercises that involve moving the center of gravity of the body.

The ability to relax the main muscle groups responsible for game actions is developed in football players using the following exercises:

• shaking the feet at different starting positions of the legs;
• swinging freely lowered arms with body turns to the right and left;
• jumping in place or relaxed mincing run with arms hanging freely;
• transferring the weight of the body alternately from one leg to the other, quickly bending the knee of the free leg, without lifting the toe from the floor;
• raising and lowering the hip with both hands (the lower leg and foot are relaxed);
• jumping in place on one leg with a free swing of a relaxed leg;
• relaxed swaying of the body, leaning forward, arms hanging freely.

To improve the ability to relax, psychoregulatory training is successfully used [9; 2].

It follows that when carrying out the process of physical training, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of football.

3. Sports and technical training of young football players

The technical training of an athlete is understood as the degree to which an athlete has mastered a system of movements (techniques of a sport) that corresponds to the characteristics of a given sports discipline and is aimed at achieving high sports results.

Basic technical training taskThe athlete is teaching him the basics of techniques of competitive activity or exercises that serve as training tools, as well as improving the forms of sports technique chosen for the subject of the competition.

The process of technical training is carried out throughout the athlete’s long-term training. In connection with this, the long-term process of technical training of an athlete is divided into several stages.

Thus, Kuramshin Yu. F. distinguishes 3 stages of long-term technical training of an athlete: the stage of basic technical training; the stage of in-depth technical improvement and achievement of the highest sports and technical mastery; stage of maintaining sports and technical skills.

Each stage includes stages consisting of annual cycles. For example, the first stage usually consists of 4-6 annual cycles, the second - 6-8, the third - 4-6. Therefore, the structure, specific content and methodology of the athlete’s technical training at each stage, as a rule, is subject to the periodization of the annual training cycle. Most often, this is most clearly expressed in the training of highly qualified athletes. It follows that the process of mastering and improving movement techniques within the annual training cycle among qualified athletes largely depends on the patterns of acquisition, maintenance and further development of sports form. In this regard, in the annual cycle he distinguishes 3 stages of technical training:

1) exploratory, aimed at developing a new technique of competitive actions (or its updated version), improving the prerequisites for its practical development, learning (or relearning) individual movements included in competitive actions;

2) the stabilization stage, aimed at in-depth development and consolidation of holistic skills of competitive actions;

3) adaptive improvement (adaptive), aimed at improving the formed skills, increasing the range of their appropriate variability (variability), stability (resilience), reliability in relation to the conditions of the main competitions.

Thus, the main task of technical training is the development of such skills in performing competitive actions that would allow the athlete to use his capabilities in competitions with the greatest efficiency. In other words, the main goal of an athlete’s technical training is the formation of his technical readiness. In this regard, we will define this type of athlete’s preparedness and reveal its content.

Thus, Kuramshin Yu.F. understands the technical preparedness of an athlete as his ability to perform the technique of mastered motor actions.

In domestic and foreign publications, specialists in biomechanics, theory and methods of physical education and sports (S.V. Yananis, B.A. Ashmarin, V.L. Utkin, M.M. Bogen, B. Chabanski and others) define “technique” as a way of performing a motor action, with the help of which a motor task is solved rationally (expediently and economically) and effectively. This understanding differs from traditional views on “technique,” ​​which identify it with an ideal (exemplary or reference) model of motor action, rather than correlating it with a motor task. It is the task facing the student (athlete), which has a strictly defined goal, that forces him to choose one rather than another method of performing an action, which should provide the most economical and effective solution to this problem in accordance with the previously set goal.

A distinction is made between the basis of the movement technique, its defining link and details. The basis of the technique is the combination of those links and features of the dynamic, kinematic and rhythmic structure of movement, which are certainly necessary to solve a motor task in a certain way (the necessary sequence in the manifestation of muscle forces; the necessary composition of movements coordinated in space and time, etc.) . The loss or violation of at least one element or relationship in a given set makes the solution of the motor task impossible.

The defining link of technique is the most important, decisive part of a given method of performing a motor task. For example, for running high jumps, the main element of the technique will be take-off, combined with a fast and high leg swing; for throwing - final effort; for lifting with extension on gymnastic apparatus - timely and rapid extension in the hip joints with subsequent braking. Performing the main element in sports movements usually occurs in a relatively short period of time and requires large muscle efforts.

Details of the technique are secondary features of the movement that do not violate its main mechanism. The details of the technique may vary between athletes and in most cases depend on their individual morphological and functional characteristics (for example, the swing movement of a strongly or slightly bent leg when jumping high). The correct use of individual characteristics characterizes the individual technique, which for a given person (subject to all general rules of rational technique) is the most perfect (increased bending of the legs in the last steps of the run-up in some leading runners, a peculiar phase relationship in a triple jump, etc.).

The criteria for “technique” (technical skill) are most often referred to as: volume of technology, versatility of technology, rationality and efficiency of technology, as well as mastery of technology.

The volume of technology is determined by the totality of technical techniques that the student masters. In practical work, the teacher should, if possible, teach his students the entire technical arsenal of this sport. One should strive to implement this arsenal not only in training, but also in competitions. Increasing the competitive volume of technique is achieved through constantly learning new techniques and improving those already mastered in various situations. As follows from the above, the technical techniques that the student masters can be mastered at the level of motor skills or motor skills. Probably, their mastery at the skill level is the main prerequisite for using them not only in a calm environment (in a lesson, in training), but also in a stressful situation (in a competition).

The versatility (variability) of the technique is determined by the athlete’s ability to quickly correct motor actions depending on the conditions of the competitive struggle. A technique is versatile if a student masters techniques from various groups of technical elements, performs them in different ways and variations under different training and competition conditions.

The effectiveness of technology is the degree to which a particular person’s technology corresponds to the chosen optimality criterion. Such criteria can be: a biomechanical standard or model, which are determined using modern technology and computers; standard technique, reflecting the most rational way of performing an action by leading athletes for a given time; sports result. In other words, the effectiveness of sports equipment is determined by its compliance with the tasks being solved and high final results, compliance with the level of physical, technical, and mental preparedness.

Rationality of technology means the best technology option for the majority of people in a certain age or skill group. For example, the most rational way of skiing is currently recognized as “skating”; the rational methods of high jumping among schoolchildren are “scissors” or “crossover”; long jumping from a running start is “bent legs”. Jumping the ball is the most rational way to attack the hoop in basketball from medium to long distance.

Mastery of technique is understood as the stability of performing techniques under standard conditions (in a lesson, training) and their stability in complicated conditions (different weather conditions, slightly different inventory and equipment, competition conditions). Modern training and especially competitive activities are characterized by a large number of confusing factors. These include active opposition from opponents, progressive fatigue, unusual refereeing style, unusual competition location, equipment, unfriendly behavior of fans, etc. An athlete’s ability to perform effective techniques and actions in difficult conditions is the main indicator of stability and largely determines the level of technical readiness in general .

Thus, the mastery of a technique can be quantitatively assessed by indicators of a decrease in the effectiveness of the technique (for example, the accuracy of shots on goal, throwing the ball into the hoop) in complicated conditions compared to normal conditions. Mastery of a technique can also be assessed by its indicators that the athlete demonstrates, for example, at the beginning of the distance (running, swimming, skiing, skating, etc.) and at the end of the distance. If he shows equally rational (exemplary) technique at the start and finish of the distance, then this indicates a high degree of mastery.

In addition, V.N. Platonov adds to the criteria of technical readiness the efficiency of the equipment and the minimal tactical information content of the equipment for the opponent.

The efficiency of technology is characterized by the rational use of energy when performing techniques and actions, and the appropriate use of time and space. All other things being equal, the best option for motor actions is the one that is accompanied by minimal energy consumption and the least strain on the athlete’s mental capabilities. The use of such variants of technology can significantly increase the effectiveness of training and competitive activities.

The minimum tactical information content of a technique for an opponent is an important indicator of performance in sports games and martial arts. The only technique that can be perfect here is one that allows one to disguise tactical plans and act unexpectedly. Therefore, a high level of technical readiness presupposes the athlete’s ability to perform such movements that, on the one hand, are quite effective in achieving the goal, and on the other hand, do not have clearly expressed informative details that unmask the athlete’s tactical intent.

The analysis made allows us to better understand the common features and differences between the concepts of “skill” and “technique”. First of all, it should be said that there are much more similarities between these concepts than differences. In particular, a person who masters the “correct” skill, for example, playing volleyball, is distinguished by high (optimal) speed of technical techniques, stability of their implementation in relatively standard and variable conditions of training and competition, reliability and economy of the actions performed. The same can be said about a student who has mastered the perfect playing technique. It is characterized by high efficiency, rationality (expediency and economy) and stability of technical techniques in various training and competition conditions. The differences lie in the fact that, firstly, technical techniques of different scope and variety, in particular, the mentioned game of volleyball, can be at the level of skill or skill in a person, Secondly, the playing skills acquired by one or another student are far from can always be considered as technically correct (rational) ways of performing gaming techniques.

Thus, at the initial stages of many years of training, in competitions of relatively low-qualified athletes, the level of technical skill and sports result as a whole are determined by the perfection of basic movements and actions. In the process of improving sports and technical training, this ensures that the athlete’s technique meets the following requirements: efficiency, stability, variability, economy, and minimal tactical awareness for the opponent.

General provisions for sports training of young football players at the initial training stage:

Generalized tasks in the process of long-term training of young football players are:

1. Promotion of health, promotion of proper physical development and all-round physical fitness.
2. Development of speed, agility, flexibility, speed and strength qualities.
3. Teaching the basics of technique and tactics of the game.
4. Accustoming to playing conditions.
5. Instilling in students a strong interest in playing football.

In the process of training students, the prerequisites are created for successful mastery of a wide range of technical actions, achieving a high level of special physical fitness at subsequent stages of the multi-year training process.

Table 1. Structure of basic technical techniques for the first and second years of study

Learning playing techniques should be considered as a long process, which is divided by years of study (with each year repeating the program cyclically, but at a qualitatively higher level), and therefore planning should occupy a special place in it.

The process of teaching football technology can be divided into two stages, which predetermine future technical equipment. The first stage is the first, second, third years of training, when, with the help of appropriate exercises, a variety of simple and complex technical elements, football techniques and a wide arsenal of motor skills are mastered.

The initial stage of training is characterized by the use of a large number of single-purpose exercises that are performed in simple conditions, on the spot or at low speed, without time pressure, with a rolling ball, without resistance, etc., which will help to build strong skills in stable conditions.

The second stage of training is the fourth, fifth, sixth years, characterized by in-depth training in technique using special means, which, taking into account the specifics of football, should be as close as possible to the real conditions of the game. The exercises used in training are characterized by a large number of connections, ligaments, resistance, rapid changes in conditions and movements that seek to stabilize the technique in conditions close to competitive ones. There is an opinion that the methodology used in practice is not effective enough, which does not allow students of sports schools to rationally use technical techniques, including in combination with each other.

4. Taking into account the age characteristics of athletes when constructing the educational and training process

When effectively constructing educational and training work, it is necessary to take into account the age characteristics of athletes. Let's consider the age characteristics of young athletes that influence their athletic performance.

Junior schoolchildren 7-10 years old. Initial sports training for boys and girls at this age should begin with systematic organized football lessons in secondary schools and after classes in sports sections. This age is the most favorable for the development of motor abilities and dexterity. A variety of training during this period is achieved with the help of simple physical exercises of a certain orientation, during which the motor activity of students in this age category should be directed. The main forms of training in football lessons should be sports and outdoor games according to simplified rules (with small teams, on small-sized grounds, halls), competitions, relay races, physical exercises of a certain orientation with elements of gymnastics, acrobatics, athletics, and a connecting link in all these forms must have a ball. Of the 45 minutes of classes, 80% of the time students should practice with the ball, 20% - exercises of various types. The main tasks in these lessons:

1. Formation of an active attitude towards physical education and sports.
2. Comprehensive general and special physical training with the mandatory use of balls.
3. Mastering the skills of a collective game (football).
4. Introduction to the basics of football techniques.
5. Monitoring the implementation of school duties.

At the age of 7-10 years, sports training consists of education and training as a single pedagogical process. Education is the initial stage of mastering by students in grades 1–4 a certain system of knowledge, skills and abilities. Due to physiological characteristics, this age does not have distinct muscle-motor sensations, therefore, at the first stage of training, the main methods are: a story, a simple explanation (instruction), demonstration of a technique or some action. First, there is a demonstration of correct and clear execution, and then explanations and indications of the main points of the action. Next, you need to let the students try the action, and only then should they demonstrate a natural demonstration at a slow pace and highlight key points so that the children have an idea about this technique or action. After that, they make the first attempts at complete implementation through repeated repetition and, if there is a positive result, this ends the first stage of training.

The average teenage group is 11-14 years old. Physical and sports training at this age, when the athlete’s body develops evenly and steadily and is already able to withstand certain loads, one can begin to in-depth study of techniques and master the game of football.

Taking into account the physiological characteristics of children in grades 5-8, coordination improves; they can gradually master both simple and complex movements. When mastering technical techniques in combination with dribbling, dribbling, etc. From the point of view of psychology, observation, attention and motor memory develop well at 11-14 years of age. Students gradually begin to think logically and when teaching, it is advisable to use a programmed teaching methodology in football lessons, which is based on the principle of breaking down the material being studied into stages (steps). Programmed movement training provides a method of learning that minimizes the undesirable consequences of a random selection of exercises leading to the ultimate goal - the development of a stabilized skill.

With such training, it is necessary to highlight the following basic provisions:

a) availability of a training program;

b) dividing learning into stages (steps);

c) operational control over changes caused by training depending on the individual characteristics of the students.

1. Training will be most effective if each subsequent element of the technique is tested after complete, error-free execution of previous actions (the principle of linearity).
2. It is not always possible to program training in complex forms of movements or techniques in combination with other actions. Not every exercise can be divided into simple elements that will not change the logical internal content of the exercise.

3. The most acceptable way of programmed learning is combined, which takes into account the element of student adaptation to the material being studied. The process of mastering the technique follows a linear program until the student makes a mistake. The reason for the error is explained, and further implementation of technical techniques is adjusted taking into account the individual capabilities of the students (learning abilities). The technique of playing football and the game itself, as well as the learning process at the age of 11-14 years and achieving success in learning, evoke positive emotions in students (boys and girls).

Football is an emotional game, so the structure of the lesson and the selection of exercises during training should have an emotional coloring, in which the technical techniques that allow one to master the game itself are quickly mastered and more firmly established.

In this age group, we especially wanted to draw attention to 13-14 year old students (grades 8-9), who are experiencing significant changes typical of the transition period: physical growth disrupts the harmonious development of organs, behavior becomes unbalanced, and a tendency to critical judgments appears. in relation to adults. This period requires special attention and great patience in educational work.

During football lessons in these classes, it is necessary to pay more attention to the general development of body functions. The intensity of the classes is average. The categorical condition is to avoid overloads. The development of such necessary qualities as speed and coordination has a particularly beneficial effect on the development of boys and girls. At the age of 13-14, with systematic training, football techniques are especially well absorbed.

Main training objectives: grades 7-8:

1. Laying the foundations of the body’s special performance with an emphasis on coordination and speed. Pay due attention to the development of dynamic strength.

2. Teaching techniques and tactics of the game (actions with both the right and left foot), attacking and defensive combinations in small groups (2, 3, 4) in school halls and reduced-sized playgrounds.

1. Mastering simple specialized knowledge as a prerequisite for flexible tactical thinking and behavior during the game, and a creative approach to it.
2. Personality formation by influencing the moral and volitional qualities of students, which must be demonstrated in a collective game.

Senior schoolchildren 15 -17 years old. At the age of 15 - 17 years, the development of the growing organism and the formation of personality are completed. The nervous system in this age period stabilizes, and its regulatory capabilities increase significantly. Students in these classes become physically stronger and behave more smoothly. The level of their practical knowledge of football grows on the basis of consistently deepening physical, technical and tactical training. In high school, where the workload gradually increases, due attention in football lessons is paid to mastering game actions, taking into account functions in the team. During the classes, endurance is intensively developed thanks to special exercises without the ball, as well as game exercises with the ball. The level and quality of play improves due to acquired skills and increased performance.

The main tasks that need to be solved during football classes:

1. Development of students' motor abilities. The main attention is paid to the development of special motor abilities in relation to football.
2. In-depth training in technical techniques adapted to play in attack and defense, learning group combinations.

1. Training in game exercises for individual actions in attack and defense.

1. Strict monitoring of student health when planning and conducting classes with increased load.

Formation of the social and moral character of students, a creative attitude towards study and sports.

5. Determination of the level of physical and technical preparedness of football players

The level of physical and technical preparedness of football players can be determined by the following tests listed below:

Test No. 1. Running 30 meters from a high start. Used to determine speed qualities.

At the command “Start!” participants approach the starting line and take their starting position. At the command “Attention!” lean forward and at the command “March!” run to the finish line along their own path. Time is determined with an accuracy of 0.1 sec. An attempt is not counted if there is a false start.

Test No. 2. For adaptation to physical activity (Morozova).

The proposed exercise is set in the form of a run with the highest possible intensity along the perimeter of a square with a side of 15 m. Starting, the football player makes a dash of 15 m, changes direction by 90° and continues moving, running a snake around four posts standing at a distance of 3 m from each other. Then it changes direction again by 90° and makes a 15 m dash; The distance ends with overcoming two barriers 40 cm high, standing 5 m from each other. The player finishes at the same point where he starts. The running time is recorded using a stopwatch, the athlete is given a 15-second rest - walking in the area of ​​the start line, after which another attempt follows. In total, the athlete makes 5 attempts. The endurance of football players is assessed by the total time of running in five attempts and by the time of recovery of heart rate to 120 beats/min. after the fifth try.

Test No. 3. Outlining the racks.

A football player with a ball covers a distance of 30 m as quickly as possible, while circling 6 posts located in a straight line two meters from each other. The near stand was installed 10 m from the start. The time of each of the three tasks is recorded with an accuracy of 0.01 s on a millisecond watch, using starting and finishing platforms. An attempt is not counted if at least one post is not circled. After dribbling the last post, the ball is passed in the direction in which the subject remained relative to the last post.

Test No. 4. Transmissions for accuracy.

To conduct the control exercise, two wooden boards are used, on which gates are drawn 2 m long and 0.4 m high. These goals were located at an angle of 90° in relation to each other. Straight lines are drawn at a distance of 5 m from each gate. Their purpose is that usually when testing it is not recommended to kick the ball from a distance closer than 5 m. Depending on the qualifications of the players, the coach can determine the optimal distance (usually it is 15% of the maximum distance when kicking the ball with maximum force) . The condition for completing the test is that the subject hits the ball without crossing a given line, first at one goal, then at the other, again at the first goal, then at the second, and so on for one minute. In cases where a player misses the backboard and the ball flies far to the side, the stopwatch stops. The criterion for technical readiness is the number of accurate strikes performed by the subject in one minute.

6. Conclusion. st sports training

Analysis of scientific and methodological literature indicates the clear role of physical fitness of young athletes in achieving high sports results in accordance with modern methodological requirements for training young athletes.

Having identified the positive aspects of coaching, I would like to draw your attention to the fact that improving physical qualities when playing football is a complex and far from solved problem.

Analysis of training programs for training activities allows us to conclude that the approach to improving technical and physical preparedness that exists in practice contributes to adequately increasing the effectiveness of this type of preparedness of young football players.

And, nevertheless, there is a need for a constant search for ways and techniques, the implementation of which in the process of physical training will contribute to the effective development of the basic physical qualities of young football players.

In fundamental research in recent years, among the priority areas for further development of the problem of increasing the effectiveness of tactical training of young football players, the need to build training based on taking into account age-related patterns of competitive and training volumes of versatility of technique and tactics of the game is highlighted.

7.References

1. Andreev, S.N. Mini-football at school / S.N. Andreev, E.G. Aliev. - M.: Soviet sport, 2006, 224 p.
2. Bannikov, S.E. Play football / S.E. Bannikov. - Ekaterinburg, 2006, 103 p.
3. Verevkin, M.P. Mini-football at school / M.P. Verevkin. - M.: Sport Academ Press, 2004, 100 p.
4. Matveev L.P. Theory and methodology of physical culture / L.P. Matveev. - M.: Physical Culture and Sports, SportAcademPress, 2008, 544 p.
5. Morozov G.V. Training of football players. Theory and practice / G.V. Monakov. - M.: Soviet sport, 2005, 288 p.
6. Theory and methodology of physical culture / ed. prof. Yu.F. Kuramshin. - M.: Soviet sport, 2003, 464 p.
7. Shvykov, I.A. Football at school / I.A. Shvykov. - M.: Terra Sport, Olympia Press, 2002, 144 p.

V.M. Zatsiorsky illustrates the complexity of this choice:

Imagine a group of young athletes who trained for a certain period of time with one exercise, exercise A, which is a barbell squat. Ultimately, their results improve. Let's assume that the improvement is the same for all athletes and is equal to, for example, 20 kg. What will happen to these athletes' performance in other events, such as standing vertical jump, sprinting, or freestyle swimming (events B, C, and D)? It can be predicted that performance in these exercises will improve to varying degrees. Improvement can be significant in standing jumps, relatively small in sprinting, and almost none in swimming. In other words, the transfer of training results from exercise A to exercises B, C and D is different.

...How to choose the most effective exercises, as a result of which the training effect is better transferred from additional to basic sports movements? Let's look at the following questions:

1. 
   Is long distance running a useful endurance exercise?
   for swimmers? For long-distance cross-country skiers? For those involved
   race walking? For cyclists? For wrestlers?
2. 
   To improve pitchers' throwing speed, the coach recommends that pitchers
   practice with baseballs of various weights, including heavy ones. What
   What is the optimal ball weight for training?
3. 
   A coach planning preseason training for receivers should
   recommend a set of exercises to develop leg strength. The coach can choose
   between different groups of exercises or combine exercises from different
   groups. These are the following groups of exercises:

• 
  isokinetic single-joint movements such as leg flexion and extension
  simulator;
• 
  similar single-joint exercises with free weights;,
• 
  squats with dumbbells;.
• 
  isometric leg extension;
• 
  vertical jumps with additional weights (weight belts);
• 
  running uphill;
• 
  running with parachutes.

The transfer of training results can vary significantly even for very similar exercises. In the experiment, two groups of athletes performed isometric leg extension at different angles of joint flexion - from 70 to 130 degrees (full leg extension corresponds to 180 degrees). The maximum value of force F m , as well as the change in force ΔF m at different angles in the joint turned out to be different.

In the practice of fitness training, the range of tasks that a personal trainer will have to solve, and the range of means and methods for solving them can also be quite wide.

Let's consider an example when a client sets you a maximum goal related to increasing muscle mass. Let's try to analyze how we can break it down into several tasks.

We know that an increase in muscle mass as a result of training occurs due to the following factors: an increase in the level of capillarization, the number and size of mitochondria, an increase in the volume of sarcoplasm, the thickness and number of myofibrils, and an increase in glycogen reserves.

In addition to these, there are factors indirectly related to an increase in muscle mass, but they influence it quite actively. For example, adaptation to training,

^

Aimed at developing endurance, expressed in the development of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the mitochondrial apparatus and, as a result, improving the mechanism of ATP resynthesis due to oxidation, will significantly shorten the period of recovery and synthesis of protein structures after high-intensity training with weights. After all, it is oxidation that plays the leading role in providing energy for the energy-intensive synthetic processes initiated by these workouts.

The development of the above factors that determine muscle size will be the result of various adaptation processes, which, in turn, will be initiated by training influences that differ in the nature of the load. By devoting mesocycles to the primary solution of certain tasks and sequentially alternating them, it is possible to ensure sufficiently long and continuous progress in achieving the maximum goal.

Currently, in the practice of fitness training, periodizing training
program, mainly use two methods.

The first method involves a sequential change of training programs that have a completed form and clear boundaries for the beginning and end of classes in these programs. Each such program, which has a constant load value corresponding to the current functional state of the client, differs from others mainly in volume and intensity. The duration of each such mesocycle, during which your client is engaged in one program and, accordingly, influences the systems of his body corresponding to this program, as a rule, ranges from two to four months. At the end of each mesocycle, a week-long break follows, during which the client performs only low-volume, low-intensity aerobic training. The task of such periods is physical and mental restoration of the body, “self-healing” of microtraumas of muscle and connective tissue.

The dynamics of load changes within one mesocycle can look quite varied. The most common option is a linear increase in load, which occurs mainly due to an increase in the weight of the load. The athlete tries to put into practice the principle of overload, trying to increase the weight of the weights at each training session. At the same time, as Stuart Mac Robert rightly notes in his book “Think”, what is important is not so much the rate of increase in the weight of the weights, but the very presence of this progression. Therefore, it seems reasonable, when approaching your genetically given limit in the development of strength abilities, to use discs of the smallest possible weight (so-called weights) for additional weighting of barbells or dumbbells. The volume of load with this method of organizing training within one mesocycle, as a rule, does not change.

More effective are schemes in which, within one mesocycle, the dynamics of load changes have a wave-like shape, increasing at the beginning and middle of the cycle, reaching a peak level in the second half and decreasing towards the end of the cycle. In this case, we avoid stressful situations of a sharp reduction or increase in loads. The form of such a wave-like change in loads can be either smooth, with a gradual decrease or reduction, or stepwise, in which there is a change of microcycles with loads of different sizes. In the second case, microcycles can last from one to three weeks and be of a retractive, basic, shock or restorative nature. It should be noted that during the shock microcycle, both an increase in the level of the leading function (against the background, however, of accumulating overfatigue of the body as a whole) and its decrease as a result of training sessions in a state of under-recovery can be observed. This state is acceptable for a limited period of time, but the shock microcycle must be followed by a recovery microcycle, during which a reduced level of stress will allow one to get rid of these negative factors.

Sometimes the training process is organized in such a way that, while training according to the next training program, the training

^ Part 3. Strength training (weight training)

Impact on the factor dominant in the previous mesocycle, maintaining a minimum
the level of load required to maintain it. If this was a factor developed
high-intensity loads, the level of training influences is reduced,
increasing the rest period between them. If this was a factor developed
high-volume low-intensity loads, level of training influences
reduced by reducing their volume.

The second method involves the use of a shortened macrocycle with a gradual, from lesson to lesson, change in the nature of the load without a clear division into mesocycles complete in form and duration (Fig. 15). The nature of the load with this method of organizing the training process changes by linearly increasing intensity and decreasing volume. This method of periodization has been used for quite a long time, for example, in powerlifting. We will illustrate this method with one example of load cycling used in this sport.

Fig.15

In table Figure 3 shows a diagram of the organization of training sessions, in which each competitive movement (bench press, squats and deadlift) is worked out once a week. Sometimes on an additional fourth day a bench press workout with a small load is added.

The weight of the weight is given as a percentage of 1RM (one repetition maximum is the maximum weight with which an athlete can perform one repetition). Warm-up approaches, as well as auxiliary exercises, are omitted.

Table 3

^ Theory and methodology of fitness training

As we can see, the macrocycle, which aims to increase strength abilities to overcome the maximum weight in one repetition of a specific exercise, is quite short, its duration is fourteen weeks. There is no clear division into mesocycles, and the load gradually changes its character by increasing intensity and decreasing volume. In each training session, the load is characterized by a different volume and intensity. Accordingly, according to the principle of specificity, the emphasis in the impact is shifted from some to other structures of the body, providing an increase in strength abilities. To a greater extent, the focus on increasing strength due to hypertrophy of skeletal muscles (mainly along the myofibrillar pathway) at the beginning of the macrocycle changes to developing strength due to intramuscular coordination factors (the number and frequency of impulses, the synchrony of motor units involved in the work) towards its end.

It should be noted that an increase in load intensity throughout the macrocycle is ensured not only by an increase in the amount of weight, but also by a gradual approach to the state of “failure” when performing the last repetition in the approach. Increases as external, so and internal intensity. To overcome the weight in the specified number of repetitions at the beginning of the cycle, the athlete only needs to make very moderate efforts, which allows him to “leave in reserve” another two to three repetitions. Gradually increasing the magnitude of the burden confronts the athlete with the task of applying more and more effort to overcome it. By the end of the cycle, the need to perform the exercise with the specified number of repetitions forces him to demonstrate his psychophysical abilities to the maximum extent.

Once again, pay attention to the following fact: at the beginning of such a macrocycle, according to the principle of reversibility, the level of the developed function may decrease slightly (due to a significant reduction in loads), but it is possible that it is this detraining that is the stimulus for further progress. As they say: “one step back, two steps forward.” We seem to step back so that, with a running start, we can overcome the obstacle.

This method of periodizing the training process is also very productive for solving problems in the field of fitness and bodybuilding. The task of developing strength abilities due to coordination groups of factors fades into the background; the task of hypertrophy of skeletal muscles due to the widest possible range of factors becomes urgent. In accordance with this task, the nature of the training influence changes. It seems reasonable to leave the range of changes, for example, repetitions in an approach, in the range from 15-20 to 5-6. In addition to the amount of weight and the number of repetitions in the approach, you can also change the volume and intensity of the load by changing the number of working approaches, as well as the number of training sessions aimed at developing one muscle group in a weekly period.

An example of such an organization of the training process aimed at increasing muscle mass is the training program given by Stuart Mac Robert in his book “Think!” Let's contact the author:

... Let's take the squat as an example and let's say that before you picked up this book, you got to a weight of 105 kg for six repetitions. To start the cycle, let's choose a weight of 80 kg (about 75% *) and do two sets of 10 repetitions, although you could of course increase the number of repetitions much more without much difficulty. Remember: the cycle should start with obviously small loads, then they will increase until they reach a record level (this will happen in a few weeks), then there will be a break, and then the cycle can be repeated, and not necessarily in the same version.

*Weight is given as a percentage of 6RM, i.e. the maximum weight with which the athlete can perform six repetitions. (Editor's note)

Part 3. Strength training (weight training)

To begin with, since the load is light, training can be done twice a week. Then the frequency of training will decrease to three every two weeks. If this is too much for you and you don't have time to recover between workouts, start with three visits to the gym in two weeks, and after the sixth week, move on to one workout per week.

Here is an approximate program (bar weight is indicated in kg):

1st week: Mon. 80, 2x10; five. 82, 2x10

Week 2: Mon. 84, 2x10; five. 86, 2x10

3rd week: Mon. 88, 2x10; Friday 90, 2x10

Week 4: Mon. 92, 2x10; Friday 94, 1x10, 1x8

Now the sets are more difficult to perform.

5th week: Mon. 96, 1x10; Friday 98, 1x10

Only one set left.

Week 6: Mon. 100, 1x10; Friday 102, 1x10

The frequency of training becomes one and a half times less.

Week 7: Wed. 104, 1x10

Week 8: Mon. 106, 1x9; Friday 108, 1x9

Week 9: Wed. Software, 1x9

Week 10: Mon. 112, 1x8; Friday 114, 1x8

Week 11: Wed. 116, 1x7

The frequency is reduced to once a week.

Week 12: Wed. 118, 1x6

Week 13: Wed. 120, 1x6

Week 14: Wed. 122, 1x5

The duration of this macrocycle is also fourteen weeks, but it should be understood that these examples are given to illustrate the construction of the periodization of the training process with a gradual change in the nature of the training load and are not absolute. We do not aim to give specific recommendations; training programs will be developed by you in relation to your specific clients based on an assessment of their individual characteristics.

Once again, we draw your attention to the fact that the magnitude of the training load on the body increases quite slowly and gradually; an increase in the intensity of the load is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in its volume. This rule must be observed in any organization of the training process. Quite often you can see a mistake in which athletes or coaches, moving to a high-volume training program, reducing the amount of weight and increasing the number of repetitions, approaches and exercises, forget to reduce the “external” and “internal” intensity, continuing to perform “failure” repetitions, applying for This is a colossal psychophysical effort. The training increases in volume, maintaining a fairly high level of intensity, and in its magnitude ceases to correspond to the functional state of the athlete’s body. This error is associated with a fairly common situation when, upon transition to such a training program, an athlete begins to lose muscle volume (i.e., begins each subsequent training session during a period of under-recovery), making the incorrect conclusion that high-volume training is ineffective. Let us repeat that there are no uniquely effective and ineffective training methods. Each training program, characterized by its own volume, intensity or the nature of the exercises, influencing specific structures and functions of the body, will be effective (for a limited period of time!), subject to compliance quantities load on the state of the human body and compliance the principle of overload.

Part 4. Aerobic training

Aerobic training

Aerobic training is a set of types of physical activity necessary to increase the aerobic abilities of the human body.

Aerobic training goals

Positive changes caused by aerobic training largely determine human health, the state of the circulatory, respiratory, blood, and neuromuscular systems.

These changes (Table 4) are due to various adaptive responses to
aerobic exercise. Increasing the rate of fat utilization, reducing peripheral
vascular resistance and an increase in maximum oxygen consumption contribute to
reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. This happens due to
reducing risk factors such as obesity, hypertension, increased levels
triglycerides and low-density lipoproteins.

A healthy cardiovascular system is about more than just getting in good aerobic shape. This is the condition of the heart muscle, its blood vessels and the blood circulation system. Aerobic exercise has proven effective in restoring the body after heart and lung diseases, treating sleep disorders, diabetes, pre- and post-natal complications, kidney disorders, eliminating stress and increased excitability.

Along with all of the above, aerobic training serves as the basis for other fitness programs. A healthy heart, lungs, blood vessels, the development of aerobic endurance, increasing the functional reserves of the body and human health in general are the main components of safety and good implementation of any training program. Clients with good cardiovascular fitness typically demonstrate greater stamina and vitality, resulting in less fatigue and a significantly lower likelihood of injury.

Table 4

Positive changes V human body,caused by aerobic exercise

• 
  Health improvements
• 
  Lower blood pressure
• 
  Increased high density lipoprotein
• 
  Reducing total cholesterol
• 
  Reduce fat accumulation
• 
  Increasing the ability to perform aerobic exercise
• 
  Decreased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion
• 
  Improved heart function
• 
  Reducing mortality among patients who have had myocardial infarction
• 
  Increased lactate threshold
• 
  Decreases heart rate at rest
• 
  Increased heart volume
• 
  Increases heart rate at rest and at maximum heart rate
• 
  Increase in maximum heart rate th emission

Theory and methodology of fitness training

Source: ACSM (American College of Sports Medicine) Test Ordering and Administration Guide.

All of the above changes in the human body are associated with an increase in its
aerobic endurance. Let's dwell on the concept endurance more details.

Endurance

Endurance- the ability to perform any work for a long time without reducing its effectiveness.

Endurance comes in two main forms:

1. 
   ^ In duration of work at a given power level until
   the first signs of severe fatigue.
2. 
   In the rate of decline in performance when fatigue sets in.
   Distinguish special And general endurance.

There are several types of manifestation of special endurance:

• 
  endurance to complex coordination, strength, speed-strength, anaerobic
  or aerobic work;
• 
  static endurance, associated with a long stay in forced labor
  posture in conditions of low mobility or limited space;
• 
  endurance for prolonged work of moderate and light work
  power;

• 
  endurance to long-term operation of variable power;
• 
  endurance to work in conditions of hypoxia (lack of oxygen);

• 
  sensory endurance - ability for a long time quickly and accurately
  respond to external environmental influences without reducing work efficiency.

"Under general enduranceis understood as a set of functional
capabilities of the body that constitute the nonspecific basis for the manifestation
performance in various types of activities. The main components of the general
endurance are the capabilities of the aerobic energy supply system,
functional and biomechanical economization” (1).

^ Aerobic capacity, as one of the components general endurance, relatively unspecific and little dependent on the type of exercise performed. Therefore, if you managed to increase your aerobic capacity in running or swimming, this will also affect the performance of exercises in other types of aerobic activity, for example, skiing, rowing,

Topic 1
Basics of teaching methods

Characteristics of motor skills. GROM assault combat training is a process of mastering an entire system of motor skills and a wide range of specialized qualities and abilities. Motor skills in GROM assault combat are distinguished by a number of features determined by the specific nature of GROM assault combat. The number of possible combinations of various attacking, counterattacking and defensive actions can, in principle, be unlimited. During initial training, the basic techniques that make up the so-called “school” of assault combat GROM are learned. With further improvement, the technical arsenal of techniques, their variability and combinatorics expands. The art of combat, the wealth of tactical plans, combinations and the effectiveness of their implementation are largely determined by the level and versatility of technical preparedness.

To successfully fight, a fighter requires great speed and accuracy of movements, and a high level of control of his body. When choosing the moment to attack an unprotected or vulnerable area on the enemy’s body that opens for a short time, the fighter must skillfully control the speed of his actions in precise coordination with the opponent’s movements. The ability to control the speed and rhythm of one’s actions, coordinate them with the actions of the enemy, and, in necessary cases, suddenly change them are important indicators of a fighter’s skill.

The requirements for speed and accuracy in performing GROM assault combat techniques necessitate a thorough mastery of their basic elements. At the first stage of training, careful development of basic techniques, achieving structural correctness and consistency in their implementation constitute the main content of the classes. As a result of repeated repetition of techniques, first in the form of imitative exercises, and then in pairs and conditioned interactions with a partner, a certain correctness and stability of movements is achieved in the execution of both the entire technique and its individual leading elements.

The motor activity of a fighter in combat is associated with a continuous response to the actions of the enemy. Sudden movements of the enemy, deceptive actions and real attempts to attack are the signals in response to which the fighter makes his attempts to carry out one or another type of attack, counterattack or defense. To correctly assess the enemy's intentions and timely use of one or another action, it is necessary to have a well-developed ability to navigate in a rapidly changing battle environment.

The fighter’s orientation in such a dynamic environment occurs on the basis of spatio-temporal and kinesthetic perceptions and their rapid processing. An unmistakable assessment of the distance to the enemy at every moment of the battle, anticipation of the positions and movements of his arms and legs, and areas of the affected surface are absolutely necessary conditions for the successful use of any GROM assault combat action.

The mechanism of spatio-temporal anticipations necessary for successful actions in battle is based on a high level of development of such specialized qualities of a fighter as “sense of distance”, speed and accuracy of visual-motor and tactile-motor reactions, “sense of time”, “sense of impact” .

These qualities, combined with technical and tactical skill, make up the specific “sense of battle” characteristic of a high-class fighter.

One of the features of a fighter’s motor activity is that it takes place under conditions of active tactical thinking. Thinking in combat is always operational, since it is aimed at solving specific and suddenly arising motor problems. To successfully conduct a fight, a fighter must not only skillfully use the advantageous moment that often arises by chance, but also have the ability to deliberately create these advantageous moments. Creating such moments based on operational thinking is the main line of behavior of a fighter in a fight. But the enemy, also actively acting, sets similar tasks for himself, therefore, during the fight, a psychologically intense struggle of plans and intentions always ensues. The ability in this fight to unravel the enemy’s plans, to impose one’s fighting style on him, to subordinate him to one’s plans - all these are integral qualities of a fighter’s skill.

Basics of teaching methods

When teaching GROM assault combat, the need to not only master the technique of techniques, but also to develop a wide range of special motor qualities and tactical abilities significantly complicates the training process and requires adherence to a certain sequence during its implementation.

Mastery of the GROM assault combat technique, development of special motor qualities, formation of tactical abilities, and volitional training must be carried out in the learning process in close interconnection. At the same time, the specific weight and ratio of individual means of training - physical, technical, tactical, psychological - at different stages of training are not the same. Depending on the specific tasks of each stage, some types of training can act as leading ones, others as auxiliary or accompanying ones.

At the initial stage of training, the main content of the classes is to study and improve the technique of performing the basic techniques of GROM assault combat. But already at this stage, along with mastering the technique, initial tactical skills should also be instilled. As the technique of the techniques being studied improves, tactical skills begin to act to a greater extent as a means of solving various tactical problems in the GROM assault battle with various partners. Combat practice is increasingly being included in the educational and training process in order to develop the tactical and volitional qualities necessary for successful combat.

Thus, the basics of the GROM assault combat training methodology consist of sequential learning of techniques in simplified conditions and their further improvement with a partner or trainer. At the same time, the practice of using combat operations in training and competitive battles with various opponents should gradually increase and become more complex. These basics determine both the standard sequence of training for a particular technique, and the general sequence of training a fighter from beginner to master.

GROM assault combat training sequence

Training in GROM assault combat begins with mastering the basic positions of a fighter. This section of training includes the study of body composition, passive defense, movements, the study of positions when gripping in the clinch, and the general concept of combat distances.

In the beginning, each of these technical elements is taught separately. As you master individual movements and acquire the correct skills to perform them, you move on to improving them in various combinations. The main attention is paid to systematic training in movement. This training is widely combined with other exercises aimed at developing basic motor skills. As the fighter masters the technique of the basic positions, they move on to studying strikes with elbows, knees, head and defenses against them. First, strikes are practiced as simulation exercises in place and in movement. At this stage, the main attention is paid to developing the correct coordination of movements of the arms, legs and torso. Having achieved the basic correct execution of strikes in place and in movement, they move on to mastering strikes in pairs with a partner or coach. At the beginning, strikes are performed on the spot with the partner stationary, then in combination with movements and the choice of the moment to strike depending on the distance and actions of the partner. In parallel with learning strikes, they also teach basic defenses against them.

One should not strive to ensure that a fighter necessarily achieves perfection in the technique of performing the technique being studied. Excessive care in practicing techniques at the initial stage of training will lead to an unjustified delay in the formation of tactical abilities and combat qualities of a fighter.

As soon as the coordination in performing basic strikes is mastered correctly, you should move on to mastering the technique of punching and kicking. Gradually, exercises with tactical tasks are increasingly included in classes, which develop into training battles on assignment.

Sequential learning does not imply an isolated transition from one type of action to another. In each lesson, there is a consolidation and improvement of known techniques and actions, a combination of already known material with new material, or the study of new variations of already known techniques.

Control questions

1. What is required from a fighter to successfully fight?

2. What underlies the mechanism of spatio-temporal anticipations necessary for successful actions in battle?

3. What is the main content of classes at the initial stage of training in assault combat GROM?

4. Show the process of learning a separate technique in the assault battle GROM.

5. What successive stages characterize the dynamics of skill formation?

Topic 2
Methods and stages of training in assault combat GROM

The process of learning a particular technique in GROM assault combat can be divided into four interrelated and interdependent stages:

1. Understand the technique.

2. Learn the technique.

3. Reinforce the technique.

4. Learn to use the technique in a real fight.

According to these stages of training, the formation of a fighter’s motor skills occurs. The dynamics of skill formation can be characterized by three successive stages.

The first stage is characterized by mastery of the basic structure of movement.

The second stage is characterized by automation of the skill. At this stage, the ability to freely perform a technique under standard conditions is acquired.

The third stage is characterized by the acquisition of the ability to freely and accurately perform a technique in non-standard conditions of changing situations in training sessions or in real combat. At this stage, the most important quality that determines the fighter’s skill is acquired - skill flexibility.

Mastery of the basic structure of the movement is achieved in the first two stages of learning a technique, in which the correct idea of ​​the technique is created and it is learned.

This stage of skill formation at the beginning of training is characterized by great tension, general stiffness of movements, and the presence of unnecessary and unnecessary movements. A significantly larger number of muscles are involved in the active state than are needed to perform the technique being learned.

In the next stage of skill formation - the stage of its automation - the skill is consolidated through its repeated repetitions. In the process of repeating it, movements become gradually more coordinated, and unnecessary ones are eliminated. Freedom of movement and the ability to clearly respond to a specific stimulus—the conditioned action of a partner or trainer—appears.

In the cerebral cortex, this stage corresponds to the process of establishing strong conditioned reflex connections, and a stable dynamic stereotype of a motor skill is formed. Speaking about the stereotype of a skill in assault combat, it should be taken into account that here there is a need to stereotype not only the action, but the basic elements of technology that make up this action of the fighter. The ability to combine individual techniques into various combat actions represents a decisive moment in the last stage of learning a technique. This stage is the longest and solves the problem of improvement, which corresponds to the third stage of motor skill formation, in which the flexibility of the skill develops.

Since each opponent has his own specific characteristics, in self-defense there are no identical conditions for every fight. Therefore, it is especially important to have the ability to perform each technique learned in a variable manner. Carefully trained basic skills must be combined in a wide variety of combinations into complex combat actions. And in order for the central nervous system to carry out this integration, systematic special exercises and training are needed. Special training for performing GROM assault combat techniques must take place in constantly changing conditions, at different speeds, with a change in rhythm in individual links or in the entire motor act. The development of the ability to quickly switch from one movement to another, from one speed to another, is due to the mobility of the main primary processes - excitation and inhibition. Therefore, it is necessary to develop the ability to quickly change the processes of excitation and inhibition in the motor zone of the cerebral cortex.

The greatest difficulties in learning GROM assault combat techniques arise at the initial stage of training. After a fighter masters the most basic techniques of GROM assault combat and has a basic supply of motor skills, the formation of new skills will occur much faster. The mastery of new techniques will occur through the partial use of previously formed temporary connections, since the nervous system is characterized by the property of plasticity, which allows a fighter, based on old skills, to form new ones that are more advanced in coordination. If in order to master new techniques at the beginning of training, a greater number of tests and repeated repetitions under standard conditions are necessary, then at the next stage of training, the ability to form new motor skills increases on the basis of existing similar skills.

It is important to note that the ability to develop new motor skills, remake and adapt old skills to new operating conditions, can only be successfully demonstrated on the basis of a solid mastery of the basic technique of assault combat GROM, which forms the foundation for further improvement of the fighter.

Stages of training in assault combat GROM

First stage of training– creating an idea of ​​the reception. At this stage, it is necessary to create a first general idea of ​​the technique, the structure of movements, and the nature of actions. Moreover, it is very important that the technique is perceived as an integral motor act.

Second stage of training- learning the technique. First, the technique is performed to test and verify the correctness of the created mental image of it. To clarify the details of the technique and create more accurate sensations, the technique is performed slowly at first. If difficulties arise, the technique can be performed by dividing it into elements. The time it takes to perform a technique divided into elements depends on the complexity of the technique and the speed of mastery, but it should not be long so as not to cause a gap in the concept of the technique as an integral motor act. Then the technique is generally performed slowly at first, and then gradually speeding up at a pace close to combat. To check the correctness of the movements, self-control, observation of the execution in the mirror, observation and assistance of a partner are used.

In the process of learning a technique, muscular-tactile ideas about correct execution are created, the main components and initial proprioceptive sensations are realized, and the coordination connections necessary for this movement are formed.

In the first stage of the formation of a motor skill, the basic structure of performing a technique is formed, which is subsequently consolidated and improved, and that is why it is very important to create an idea of ​​its structure from the very beginning of training. However, the ability to correctly reproduce a learned technique does not yet mean mastery of the skill. This is carried out in the next stage of consolidation of the skill.

Third stage of training– consolidation of a skill – occurs in systematic repeated performances, in which freedom, efficiency and ease of movements are gradually acquired. Gradually the pace of execution approaches the maximum - combat. The best form of exercises to consolidate skills is exercises in pairs.

At first, the technique is performed in easy conditions (slow pace, fixed distance); as you master the conditions, they become more complex. Complicating the execution conditions is achieved by adding movements, changing the distance, increasing the activity of the partner and other factors. Further, the technique can be performed with the continuation of actions, with their development into a conventional battle using previously learned techniques. Consolidation of skills in combat conditions is carried out first at a slow pace, which gradually increases.

Fourth stage of training– improving the acquired skill. At this stage, acceleration, clarification, and flexibility of the skill are achieved.

When studying GROM assault combat techniques, the following factor should be taken into account. On the one hand, the skill in performing a technique must be extremely automated, and this requires multiple repetitions of the technique under the same conditions. On the other hand, a fighter constantly has to deal with changing conditions, both in training and in real fights. Accordingly, automated, standard execution of a technique may negatively affect the possibilities of variable execution of techniques and combat operations in combat conditions, where combat situations are constantly changing.

Therefore, in the process of improving the technique, it is necessary to constantly change the conditions of its use and not engage in long-term mechanical repetition under the same conditions. After achieving automaticity in performing a technique, they move on to combining it with other techniques, switching from one type of action to another, from attack to defense, from defense to counterattacks. It should also be noted that the development and improvement of skill in a separate technique of assault combat GROM does not occur in isolation in accordance with the division into four stages. Already the first stage has elements of consolidation and improvement, since it contains repetitions, rhythm changes and other execution options. In consolidating a skill, there are all the elements of improvement; at the same time, new options are also being learned and details are being clarified.

Three points play an important role in studying the GROM assault combat technique:

1. Understanding the techniques.

2. Self-monitoring of their implementation.

3. Error correction.

Comprehension of techniques is an indispensable condition for the successful formation of motor skills. In the process of comprehension, the corresponding motor centers are excited, and the necessary mental attunement is created to perform certain work. Understanding the structure of a technique and its details develops the ability to self-control the performance of techniques. Self-control over the implementation of techniques contributes to the faster formation of correct skills and prevents the occurrence of serious mistakes. Self-control is possible provided there is a well-developed sense of movement and a full understanding of the meaning and structure of the technique.

The ability to self-control should be gradually and persistently developed. To do this, the following methodological techniques are used:

– performing techniques with division into component elements;

– alternating fast execution of a technique with a slow one;

– deliberately slow execution;

– stopping movement with recording its various moments for better analysis and sensation;

– performing parts of the movement at a given speed;

– execution in front of a mirror; execution under the supervision of a partner and observation of a partner.

The use of these methods will help develop critical thinking in a fighter, increase observation and self-demandingness, increase the ability to analyze movements, and develop interest in technical improvement.

Error correction. Errors are deviations that disrupt the mechanism of movement, distorting its structure, timeliness and appropriateness of actions.

All errors based on the special feature of GROM assault combat can be divided into technical and tactical, based on physiological characteristics - into automated and non-automated, and based on biomechanical characteristics - into local and chain.

Technical errors violate the basic correctness of movements and distort elements of movement. These are errors in coordination of movements. Even when tactically overcoming the enemy, they can hinder the achievement of victory, since they result in ineffective strikes or defenses.

Tactical errors are expressed in the discrepancy between the combat actions of a fighter and the actions of his opponent.

Automated errors arise as a result of repeated repetitions of incorrect movements, during which a stereotype of an incorrect motor skill is developed. Automated errors are difficult to correct and, in some cases, remain permanent.

Correcting these errors requires the logic of the resulting incorrect skill and the suppression of established reflexes.

Non-automated errors most often occur at the initial stage of learning and are an inevitable phenomenon caused by the unpreparedness of the neuromuscular system and psyche to perform new unusual movements.

They are associated with a lack of control on the part of motor analyzers in the work to establish complex conditioned reflex connections, or in other words, in the development of new coordination. When encountering a new movement, before the skill is established, there is active work in the nervous system associated with the need to establish correct relationships between body parts and organs. Perfect coordination arises only as a result of this struggle. And while learning is underway, the occurrence of a number of errors is an inevitable phenomenon. If proper attention is not paid to them, they can become automated and will pose a great obstacle to the development of a fighter's skill.

Length of rest period between individual classes

In Fig. Figure 5 shows various options for constructing the training process with different rest periods between workouts. Graph (a) reflects the correct load-rest relationship, when the beginning of each subsequent load coincides with the maximum level of supercompensation. Graphs (b) and (c) show incorrectly calculated rest intervals, which lead to a lack of progress (c) or even regression in case of under-recovery (b).

^ 3. Overload principle

The principle of overload reflects the fact that in order for the effect of supercompensation to occur, the effect on the body must exceed a certain threshold level. The load will be stressful not when it is great, but when it is great enough to trigger the adaptation mechanism and cause the phenomenon of supercompensation. In training practice, this is expressed in the need to constantly increase training loads. This can be achieved by changing the parameters that determine the volume and intensity of a specific training load, and by manipulating combinations of these parameters.

However, implementing this principle in practice, we will inevitably encounter the following situation: an increase in the volume and/or intensity of the training load and the corresponding development of certain abilities or qualities, which occurs quite actively at the beginning of the training process, slows down more and more over time and in eventually disappears completely. As you become more trained, the level of tension required to trigger the adaptation mechanism approaches a point where your body simply cannot maintain it at that level. It turns out to be a kind of vicious circle, the student is included in the so-called. state of stagnation or plateau. Further attempts to increase loads by activating volitional efforts will lead to a state of overexertion, or overtraining.

Rice. 5a

Rice. 5 B

^ Fig. 5v

There is a paradox - to ensure longevity and continuity of progress, we must, observing the principle of overload, constantly strive to increase the load, but in training practice it is impossible to realize this condition. The principle of cyclicity will come to our aid, which we will begin to consider a little later.

^ 4. The principle of specificity

The principle of specificity postulates that “the most pronounced adaptive changes under the influence of training occur in the organs and functional systems that are most stressed when performing physical activity” (4). As they say, “training is what you train.” For example, short-term training with near-maximal and extreme loads will cause those adaptive changes that correspond precisely to this nature of the load, and will differ from those that occur under the influence of long-term continuous training with moderate loads. The first of them will cause an increase in the cross-section of the muscle due to the development of mainly “fast” muscle fibers, improvement of creatine phosphokinase, myokinase systems of energy production and anaerobic glycolysis. The second will lead to the development of “slow” muscle fibers, less capable of hypertrophy, as well as improvement of aerobic energy supply mechanisms and increased capillarization.

Thus, when starting classes with a client, it is necessary to fairly accurately determine the nature of the load, the use of which should solve certain tasks set by him. This poses a problem if the client wants to maximize the development of several different qualities. The interaction of training effects from loads that differ in nature can be negative. For example, incorrectly combining loads aimed at developing strength and endurance in the training process can lead to a significant decrease in the training effect of each of them. Acceleration of mitochondrial synthesis and an increase in the level of enzymes that provide the aerobic energy supply mechanism during endurance work is ensured by the release of the so-called. stress hormones, the main of which are glucocorticoids. However, glucocorticoids, including mobilizing the body’s protein resources, “compete” with anabolic hormones, designed to accelerate the synthesis of contractile proteins to increase strength qualities. In turn, short-term powerful workouts aimed at developing strength and using anaerobic mechanisms of ATP resynthesis “acidify” the internal environment of the body, which prevents the growth of mitochondria (“energy stations” that provide the aerobic path of energy production). In principle, it is possible to simultaneously develop various qualities, using training influences that differ from each other, but combine them in accordance with certain rules and choosing priority goals and objectives. Therefore, you, as a coach, need to familiarize your student with this phenomenon in an accessible form and jointly decide on priorities.

^ 5. The principle of specialization

This principle is, in fact, a subprinciple of the previous one, considering the concept of specificity in a narrower sense. The principle of specialization is based on the concept of neuromuscular adaptation, which occurs in response to the same repetitive movements. We are talking about developing the so-called. technology performing a specific movement and increasing performance due to this. As we know, several muscle groups and individual muscles are involved in each movement, playing their assigned role (agonists, antagonists, synergists, stabilizers) and demonstrating their strength abilities in a strictly defined sequence. An optimal result is possible only when the work of individual muscles or muscle groups is coordinated in spatio-temporal and dynamic-temporal relationships. This interaction of the muscles involved in movements is called intermuscular coordination. She

^ Part 1. Fitness training theory

It is specific to specific types of movements and cannot be transferred from one movement to another. Thus, it should be taken into account that the development of the strength qualities of the quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteal muscles, and back extensor muscles individually will not cause an adequate increase in performance in performing an exercise performed using these muscles, such as the squat. Performing only the motion of throwing on a block machine will not increase your performance in javelin throwing, and running with weights on your feet (or in the water) will not increase your running speed under normal conditions. “You train what you train.” Moreover, the use of weights when performing sport-specific movements can worsen their technique due to changes in the biomechanical scheme of these movements. Training aimed at developing the qualities that underlie achievements in a particular sport, but not using movements specific to this sport, can be used only at the introductory and general preparatory stages, gradually reducing their share in the special preparatory stage and excluding them in the pre-competition stage.

^ 6. Reversibility principle

The principle of reversibility is based on the phenomenon when cessation of training sessions leads to the so-called. detraining, i.e. gradual loss of qualities and functions acquired as a result of training. What is essentially happening is the body adapting to new (lower) requirements. “What is not used is lost.” This is due to the fact that in order to maintain functions and qualities at a new level, increased as a result of training, the body requires additional efforts. For example, muscle mass increased as a result of bodybuilding is metabolically active and, even at rest, requires a fairly large amount of energy and plastic material for nutrition, synthetic processes, and utilization of metabolic products. However, the concept of “body beauty” does not exist for the body; it is important for it to ensure normal functioning with minimal energy consumption. The body retains the acquired increased level of muscle mass only as long as it needs this muscle mass to exist under conditions of periodically repeated external loads on it. A decrease in the volume and intensity of training influences will lead to the fact that muscle mass will decrease to a level corresponding to the new level of load. The same applies to any other functions and systems of the body.

^ 7. The principle of cyclicity

The implementation of the cyclical principle in practice is the periodization of the training process. Periodization is the cornerstone of the theory and practice of any sports training and health practice. The use of periodization in planning the training process is the only way to ensure a sufficiently long-term increase in sports results, provided that the possibility of overfatigue or overtraining is minimized.

As we have already said, with prolonged exposure to training loads of a certain type on the body, the rate of adaptive changes in the body gradually slows down and continued use of this type of load no longer provides an increase in results. Further development of fitness is possible in this case only by changing the nature of the training stimulus, in which the development of adaptation occurs in a different direction due to the development of other functions and qualities (4). To do this, within the framework of the maximum problem, the solution of which is assigned macrocycle, identify intermediate tasks, the solution of which is associated with the development of various qualities and functions. Consecutive changes in periods of training influences on various functional systems that dominate in the development of adaptation to these loads ensure the duration and continuity of training.

The use of periodization in sports practice involves breaking down the training process into macro-, meso- and microcycles. Macrocycles- these are the periods in

^ Theory and methodology of fitness training

Within the framework of which any maximum task is solved. In the practice of sports, the macrocycle serves to prepare for the next major competition (for example, annual macrocycles or four-year macrocycles associated with preparation for the Olympic Games). In the practice of fitness training in general (and, for example, amateur bodybuilding, as its component, in particular), the duration of the macrocycle, as a rule, depends on the goal set by the client and the expected period of its achievement. The macrocycle, in turn, is divided into mesocycles to solve various specific problems. The duration of mesocycles is determined by the duration of adaptation processes occurring in functional systems corresponding to the loads applied during this period, which, in turn, depends on the reactivity of these systems and the dynamics of the training means used.

The choice of goals to be addressed in training within individual mesocycles, and, as a consequence, the methods and means used for this, depend on specific sports. The coach is required to have sufficiently deep knowledge in the field of sports physiology in order to accurately determine the totality of various adaptation processes, the implementation of which will lead to an overall increase in performance in a given sport.

When planning a macrocycle, one should take into account the different duration of adaptation processes that ensure the development of certain qualities, and the different duration of maintaining sports form in each mesocycle.

The mesocycle, in turn, is divided into microcycles, periods in which training loads of varying volume and intensity are applied. This is connected with this. As we know, to trigger the adaptation mechanism, the stressful nature of the training influence applied to the body is necessary. However, the desire to ensure such a stressful nature of the load at each training session with a high degree of probability can lead to inhibition or disruption of the adaptation mechanism as a result of overtraining - a condition largely associated with overstrain of cortical processes and disruption of the regulatory functions of the central nervous system. Alternating microcycles with loads that differ in volume and intensity will make it possible to most effectively implement the task set for solution within a specific mesocycle. More detailed recommendations for creating cycles when developing training programs will be given below.

^ Fitness training system

Fitness training means are a variety of physical exercises that directly or indirectly influence the solution of the tasks that a fitness trainer faces as part of his work.

Physical exercises used in fitness training are mainly borrowed from sports practice. (The exception is exercises for developing flexibility, partially borrowed from such a system of human health improvement and improvement as yoga). As a result, they are divided according to the classification used in the sport.

Exercises can be divided into:

• 
  according to the predominant mechanism of energy supply (“aerobic” and “anaerobic”
  workout);
• 
  focused on the development of certain qualities and functions (strength
  training, endurance training, flexibility training);

• 
  by the nature of execution (continuous, interval).

^ Part 1. Fitness training theory

Characteristics of training load

Training loads are determined by the following indicators:

A) load intensity;

B) load volume;

C) the nature of the exercises.

^ Load intensity

Intensity is a characteristic that reflects both the magnitude of the external load (the so-called external intensity), and the degree of human effort in overcoming it (“internal” intensity). “External” intensity is closely related to the power developed during exercise. The more power an athlete develops, the greater the intensity of his workout.

Power is the amount of work performed per unit of time. Power (R) can be defined as work ( A) divided by the amount of time (Δt), or as a product of force (F) and speed (v) (P= F· v).

Job- this is a quantity that characterizes how much an object can be displaced in
a certain direction when force is applied. (6) Work is equal to the product of force times
distance(A= F · d).

“Internal” intensity is associated with the magnitude of shifts in the functional state of various systems and organs caused by this load. It should be noted that in his practice, a fitness trainer, when determining the level of “internal” intensity, will have to rely on the client’s subjective sensations, which largely depend on his psychophysical abilities. For example, when explaining the impossibility of continuing to perform the last repetition by the onset of a state of “failure,” two different athletes may attach completely different meanings to this concept, reflecting significantly different magnitudes of their efforts when performing this repetition.

Let's look at examples of the manifestation of different types of intensity.

Suppose an athlete performs in one training session bench press with a barbell weighing 100 kg for 6 repetitions, and on the other with a weight of 90 kg for 12 repetitions. The pace, speed and other kinematic indicators are the same. However, the athlete was able to perform 6 repetitions with a weight of 100 kg quite easily, while 12 repetitions with a weight of 90 kg were performed “to failure”, using one “forced” repetition. The “external” intensity of the load will be greater in the first workout, and the “internal” intensity in the second. However, in most cases, these characteristics coincide, which allows us to simply use the term “intensity” in relation to individual training sessions or periods of the training process.

^ Load volume- job-related characteristic (A), performed by a person to overcome external resistance or to counteract it, as well as with energy (E), spent by him in demonstrating his strength abilities for this work. It is believed that the work performed by the system is equal to the change in energy in the system, i.e., doing work requires energy expenditure. The relationship between work and energy can be written as:

A= ΔE

Doing 15 reps with a 80kg barbell will be a higher volume load than doing 6 reps of 120kg squats, but less intense. An example of the manifestation of the maximum volume load would be marathon competitions, and manifestations of the maximum intense load would be weightlifting competitions.

^ Theory and methodology of fitness training

In most cases, the characteristics “volume” and “intensity” in relation to a separate training session are at different poles. Typically, at different periods of the macro- or mesocycle, either high-volume and low-intensity training, or low-volume and high-intensity training, or training with a different volume-to-intensity ratio is used. Simultaneously high-volume and high-intensity training is used only for a fairly limited period of time, within the so-called. drums micro- or mesocycles, placing an extremely stressful load on the athlete’s body and forcing him to train during this period in conditions of under-recovery.

Let's look at examples of increasing intensity and volume when training with weights.

The intensity increases with:

• 
  Increasing the weight of the burden.
• 
  Approaching the state of “failure” in the last repetitions of the approach.
• 
  Reducing the pause between approaches.
• 
  Increasing the speed of movement (“external” intensity) or, sometimes, reducing it
  (“internal” intensity).
• 
  The use of various technical techniques - (“forced repetitions”, “cheating”,
  “weight reduction method”, “supersets”, etc. (see “Methods for changing intensity
  strength training").

• 
  Increasing the number of repetitions in a separate approach.
• 
  Increasing the number of approaches per exercise.
• 
  Increasing the number of exercises for a particular muscle group.

According to the nature of the impact, all exercises can be divided into three main groups: global, regional and local impacts. Global impact exercises include those in which more than 2/3 of the total muscle volume is involved in the work, regional - from 1/3 to 2/3, local - up to 1/3 of all muscles (V.M. Zatsiorsky, 1970).

^ Part 2. Fundamentals of biomechanics

Basics of biomechanics

Basic concepts of particle mechanics

and solid

Mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the mechanical motion of material bodies.

Mechanical motion is the simplest form of motion of matter, which represents a change in the relative position of bodies in space and time.

Mechanics includes three main sections: statics, kinematics and dynamics.

In statics, the conditions of equilibrium of material bodies under the action of applied forces are considered. Kinematics studies the external picture of movements. In dynamics, the reasons for the occurrence and changes of movements are considered. Let us dwell on a brief presentation of the basic concepts of kinematics and dynamics.

^ Basic concepts of kinematics

To describe the external picture of movements, linear and angular kinematic characteristics are used. The division of kinematic characteristics into linear and angular is due to the fact that any complex motion of a rigid body can be represented as the sum of two simple motions - progressive And rotational.

Progressive they call such a movement of a body in which all its points move the same way, that is, they have the same trajectories and velocities. At rotationalmovement various points of the body move in concentric circles, and points lying on the axis of rotation remain motionless.

Unlike a rigid body, a material point has neither rotational nor translational motion; it can move either along a rectilinear or curved trajectory.

Since mechanical motion is a change in the relative position of bodies in space and time, spatial and temporal reference systems are used to describe it quantitatively.

There are various reference systems (natural, rectangular Cartesian, polar, cylindrical, etc.).

Let us recall the definitions of the main kinematic characteristics.

Coordinate - it is a measure of the position of a point or body in a chosen frame of reference. This characteristic shows only where the point or body is located. The position of a point on a plane is determined by two coordinates. When a body rotates in one plane, its position is determined by one angular coordinate.

Moving - this is a change in the position of a point or body in a selected reference system. This characteristic reflects the shortest distance traveled by a point from the initial to the final position, or the angle of rotation of the body when it rotates about any axis. The displacement is numerically equal to the difference between the coordinates of the final and initial positions of a point or body. Along with movement, another characteristic is used - path. Unlike displacement, this quantity is scalar. The path characterizes the distance traveled without taking into account the direction of movement of the point along the trajectory.

Speed ​​- these are changes in the position of a point or body over time. There are average and instantaneous velocities (linear and angular). Average speed is the ratio

^ Theory and methodology of fitness training

Moving to the time during which it occurred. Instantaneous speed is the first derivative of coordinates with respect to time.

Acceleration - is the change in speed of a point or body over time. As with speed, a distinction is made between average and instantaneous acceleration (linear and angular).

Displacement, speed and acceleration are vector quantities, i.e. they are characterized by absolute value (modulus), direction and point of application.

There are quite definite relationships between the angular and linear kinematic characteristics of the moving body. For example, the linear velocity of any point on a rotating rigid body is equal to the product of the angular velocity and the distance of this point to the axis of rotation.

^ Basic concepts of dynamics

In contrast to kinematics, dynamics studies the causes of the occurrence and change of movements, i.e., forces and moments of forces, the action of which either keeps bodies in a stationary position or changes their movement. In addition, dynamics examines the connection between the properties of material bodies and the characteristics of their motion, expressed in the corresponding laws of dynamics.

The basic concepts of dynamics are force, moment of force, mass, moment of inertia of a body, etc.

Force is a measure of the mechanical interaction of bodies at a given moment in time in translational motion. In mechanics, unlike physics and biomechanics, they do not consider the nature of the forces acting on a particular body.

The measure of the mechanical interaction of bodies in rotational motion is not force, but its moment. ^ Moment of sipa is numerically equal to the product of the force by its shoulder. The arm of a force is the shortest distance from the axis of rotation to the line along which the force acts.

Weight - This is a measure of the inertia of a body in translational motion. The greater the mass of a body, the more difficult it is to make it move, and once it has moved, the more difficult it is to stop it or change the direction of its movement.

The measure of the inertia of a body in rotational motion is moment of inertia. Its value is determined by the product of the body mass and the radius of gyration squared. The radius of inertia characterizes the distribution of masses in a body relative to the axis of rotation. Like mass, the moment of inertia of a body shows how difficult or easy it is to change its motion, but only in this case we are talking about the rotational movement of the body.

Dynamics is based on three basic laws.

The first law is if no forces act on the body, then it will remain at rest or move uniformly and in a straight line. This law emphasizes that rest and uniform linear motion are not different states of a body; the ability of bodies to maintain these states is determined by mass and moment of inertia.

^ Second Law- the force acting on a body is equal to the product of the mass of the body and its acceleration. For rotational motion in this dependence, you need to take its moment instead of force, its moment of inertia instead of mass, and angular acceleration instead of linear acceleration. It is important to emphasize that the second law of dynamics establishes a connection between the cause of a change in movement, the property of the body and its kinematics.

^ Third Law - Every action has an equal reaction.

No less important dynamic characteristics are: force impulse and body impulse, mechanical work, power, energy (kinetic and potential), etc. n. The connections between some of them are so significant that they have received the status of independent laws. Among them we can note the law of conservation of momentum and angular momentum, the law of conservation of energy and others. More detailed information about these characteristics can be obtained from the relevant literature. However for

^ Part 2. Fundamentals of biomechanics

Familiarity with the basics of some sections of biomechanics of the characteristics discussed above will be quite sufficient.

^ Introduction to biomechanics and biomechanical features of the human body structure

Biomechanics is a science that studies mechanical phenomena in living systems.

Living systems and mechanical phenomena in them are very diverse. Living systems include: various tissues of the human body (bone, muscle, connective, etc.), organs and systems (cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, etc.), a person or a group of people, etc. Mechanical phenomena also diverse. These include: the mechanical properties of the tissues of the human body, the mechanics of blood movement through the vessels, the mechanics of the birth act and others. But most often the main subject of research in biomechanics is the mechanical movement of animals, including humans.

Biomechanics, as a scientific field of knowledge, is developing in different directions. Its knowledge and methods are widely used in robotics, in the study of motor actions in production conditions, in medicine, in astronautics, etc. Physical culture and sports also require knowledge of biomechanics.

The main objectives of sports biomechanics are:

1. 
   Studying the techniques of training and competitive sports exercises.
2. 
   Study of the structure and properties of the human motor system.
3. 
   Study of human motor abilities (strength, speed, endurance, etc.).

5. Biomechanical aspects and prevention of sports injuries.

6. Study of individual and group characteristics of movements and motor
human capabilities.

^ Connection of human body links and degrees of freedom

The passive part of the human musculoskeletal system includes the bones, joints and ligaments that form the human skeleton. In biomechanics, it is usually considered as a multi-link system consisting of movably connected solid links. It is known that the human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones. For the convenience of its description, concepts such as kinematic pair, kinematic chain and degrees of freedom.

^ Kinematic pair - These are two links movably connected to each other. An example of a kinematic pair is the shoulder and forearm connected by the elbow joint.

^ Kinematic chain - This is a serial or branched connection of kinematic pairs. There are closed and open kinematic chains. An example of a closed circuit is the series connection of two ribs, the sternum and a vertebra in the rib cage. An unsupported leg in the swing phase of walking can be classified as an open kinematic chain.

^ Degrees of freedom - this is the number of independent angular and linear movements of the body. In relation to the human body, the concept of “degree of freedom” characterizes the degree of mobility of kinematic pairs, chains and the entire human body. Since mainly rotational movements are possible in joints, the degrees of freedom in them are determined by independent angular movements, the number of which depends on the shape and structure of the joint. For example, in the elbow joint there are two degrees of freedom (flexion-extension and pronation-supination), and in the hip joint there are three degrees of freedom

^ Theory and methodology of fitness training

(flexion-extension, abduction-adduction and pronation-supination). To determine the number of degrees of freedom in a kinematic chain, you need to add up the degrees of freedom of all joints of this chain. There are 244 degrees of freedom in the human body, which indicates its colossal mobility, and therefore the need to control the movements of such a complex system.

^ Muscle biomechanics

Skeletal muscles are the main movers of our body. Their number exceeds 600. From a biomechanical point of view, the main indicators of their activity in the human body are traction force and the rate of change in length. It should be emphasized that the muscle can only pull, it cannot push. That is why at least two antagonist muscles are needed to control movements in the joints relative to one or another degree of freedom. In reality, there are many more of them, which creates significant difficulties in understanding how the brain distributes the degree of muscle participation in joint movements. This is one of the unsolved problems of organizing human movements, which in biomechanics is called the problem of redundancy in the control of muscle activity.

Experiments on isolated animal and human muscles have shown that the traction force of a muscle consists of two components. One of them, let's call it activecomponent due to the contractile capabilities of muscle tissue. Another component of the force occurs when a muscle is stretched and is due to the presence of connective tissue in it, which behaves like a spring and is capable of accumulating the energy of elastic deformation when the muscle is stretched. Let's call her passivecomponent muscle traction force. It should be emphasized that the active traction force is accompanied by the expenditure of chemical energy stored in the muscles and, as a result, leads to fatigue. The passive component of the traction force is of a purely mechanical nature and does not require the expenditure of chemical energy.

Let us consider the main dependencies that reveal the essence of the mechanics of muscle contraction.

In Fig. Figure 6 shows the dependence of the traction force of an isolated muscle on its length. It can be seen that with increasing muscle length, the total traction force (a) increases, but at the same time the active (c) and passive (b) components of the force change differently. The force of elastic deformation (b) increases nonlinearly with increasing muscle length. The active force (c) first increases and then decreases, i.e., the maximum traction force is observed at a certain optimal length of the muscle, which is called the resting length. Note that depending on the amount of connective tissue in the muscle, the nature of the force-length curves and the proportion of the contribution of active and passive force to the total traction force of the muscle change (Fig. 6-1, II, and III).

l.

Calf muscle

Sartorius

Semitendinosus muscle

Dependence of muscle traction force (F) on its length (I).

Solid line (a) - total traction force; solid line (b) - muscle traction force in its passive state;

The dotted line (c) is the traction force of the contractile elements of the muscle.